A

Obesity is a well-established maternal risk factor for developing GDM, hypertension (pregnancy-induced and pre-eclampsia) is more common in women with GDM, and fetal macrosomia is a typical complication of GDM pregnancies [Scifres 2015, PMID 26241421; Alberico 2014, PMID 24428895]. A prior pregnancy complicated by a fetal abnormality is not included among the recognized risk factors or outcomes of gestational diabetes, so it is the option not associated with GDM.